解剖学和形态学
麻醉学
听力与言语-语言病理学
行为科学
心脏和心血管系统
细胞和组织工程学
临床神经病学
危重症监护医学
牙科,口腔外科和医学
皮肤病学
急诊医学
内分泌学和新陈代谢
肠胃学和肝脏学
老人病学和老年医学
卫生保健科学和服务
血液学
免疫学
传染病
综合和补充性医学
医学伦理学
医学信息学
医学实验室技术
医学,全科和内科
医学,法律
医学,研究和试验
神经系统科学
护理
营养学和饮食学
产科医学和妇科医学
肿瘤学
眼科学
整形外科学
耳鼻喉科学
病理学
儿科学
周围血管疾病
药理学和药剂学
生理学
基本医疗保健
精神病学
公共、环境和职业卫生
放射学,核医学和医学成像
康复学
生殖生物学
呼吸系统
风湿病学
运动科学
外科学
毒理学
热带医学
泌尿学和肾脏学
病毒学
老年医学
健康政策和服务
心理学,临床
abstract::Hox genes have a well-characterized role in embryonic development, where they determine identity along the anteroposterior body axis. Hox genes are expressed not only during embryogenesis but also in the adult, where they are necessary for functional differentiation. Despite the known function of these genes as transc...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2005-0018
更新日期:2006-06-01 00:00:00
abstract::To allow selection of embryos for transfer after in vitro fertilization, ovarian stimulation is usually carried out with exogenous gonadotropins. To compensate for changes induced by stimulation, GnRH analog cotreatment, oral contraceptive pretreatment, late follicular phase human chorionic gonadotropin, and luteal ph...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 历史文章,杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2005-0015
更新日期:2006-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::Natriuretic peptides are a family of structurally related but genetically distinct hormones/paracrine factors that regulate blood volume, blood pressure, ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary hypertension, fat metabolism, and long bone growth. The mammalian members are atrial natriuretic peptide, B-type natriuretic pepti...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2005-0014
更新日期:2006-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::In recent years, much interest has been devoted to defining the role of the IGF system in the nervous system. The ubiquitous IGFs, their cell membrane receptors, and their carrier binding proteins, the IGFBPs, are expressed early in the development of the nervous system and are therefore considered to play a key role ...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2004-0024
更新日期:2005-12-01 00:00:00
abstract::Recent identification of new selenocysteine-containing proteins has revealed relationships between the two trace elements selenium (Se) and iodine and the hormone network. Several selenoproteins participate in the protection of thyrocytes from damage by H(2)O(2) produced for thyroid hormone biosynthesis. Iodothyronine...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2001-0034
更新日期:2005-12-01 00:00:00
abstract::Pregnancy dramatically affects the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis leading to increased circulating cortisol and ACTH levels during gestation, reaching values in the range seen in Cushing's syndrome (CS). The cause(s) of increased ACTH may include placental synthesis and release of biologically active CRH and ACTH...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2004-0025
更新日期:2005-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::There is a large body of literature showing that prolactin (PRL) exerts growth-promoting activities in breast cancer, and possibly in prostate cancer and prostate hyperplasia. In addition, increasing evidence argues for the involvement of locally produced (autocrine) PRL, perhaps even more than pituitary-secreted (end...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2004-0016
更新日期:2005-05-01 00:00:00
abstract::Estrogens are essential for normal reproductive function. In addition, they exert important, complex, and diverse nonreproductive actions on multiple tissues. Although accumulating evidence from basic science studies using animal models suggests that estradiol plays a critical neuroprotective role against multiple typ...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2004-0014
更新日期:2005-05-01 00:00:00
abstract::In human beings, two forms of GnRH, termed GnRH-I and GnRH-II, encoded by separate genes have been identified. Although these hormones share comparable cDNA and genomic structures, their tissue distribution and regulation of gene expression are significantly dissimilar. The actions of GnRH are mediated by the GnRH rec...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2003-0039
更新日期:2005-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::Spermatogenesis is the process by which a single spermatogonium develops into 256 spermatozoa, one of which will fertilize the ovum. Since the 1950s when the stages of the epithelial cycle were first described, reproductive biologists have been in pursuit of one question: How can a spermatogonium traverse the epitheli...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2003-0022
更新日期:2004-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::Normal reproductive function in mammals requires precise control of LH synthesis and secretion by gonadotropes of the anterior pituitary. Synthesis of LH requires expression of two genes [alpha-glycoprotein subunit (alphaGSU) and LHbeta] located on different chromosomes. Hormones from the hypothalamus and gonads modul...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2003-0029
更新日期:2004-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Loss of estrogens or androgens increases the rate of bone remodeling by removing restraining effects on osteoblastogenesis and osteoclastogenesis, and also causes a focal imbalance between resorption and formation by prolonging the lifespan of osteoclasts and shortening the lifespan of osteoblasts. Conversely, androge...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2003-0003
更新日期:2004-06-01 00:00:00
abstract::Relaxin has vital physiological roles in pregnant rats, mice, and pigs. Relaxin promotes growth and softening of the cervix, thus facilitating rapid delivery of live young. Relaxin also promotes development of the mammary apparatus, thus enabling normal lactational performance. The actions of relaxin on the mammary ap...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2003-0013
更新日期:2004-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::People with type 2 diabetes are disproportionately affected by cardiovascular disease (CVD), compared with those without diabetes. Traditional risk factors do not fully explain this excess risk, and other "nontraditional" risk factors may be important. This review will highlight the importance of nontraditional risk f...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0034
更新日期:2004-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::Many hormones, growth factors, and cytokines regulate proliferation of their target cells. Perhaps the most universal signaling cascades required for proliferative responses are those initiated by transient rises in intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)). The major intracellular receptor for Ca(2+) is calmodulin (CaM). CaM is...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2003-0008
更新日期:2003-12-01 00:00:00
abstract::During the past decade, possible advancement in timing of puberty has been reported in the United States. In addition, early pubertal development and an increased incidence of sexual precocity have been noticed in children, primarily girls, migrating for foreign adoption in several Western European countries. These ob...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0019
更新日期:2003-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::The ovary and uterus undergo extensive tissue remodeling throughout each reproductive cycle. This remodeling of the extracellular environment is dependent upon the cyclic hormonal changes associated with each estrous or menstrual cycle. In the ovary, tissue remodeling is requisite for growth and expansion of the folli...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0005
更新日期:2003-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Insulin resistance is increasingly recognized as a chronic, low-level, inflammatory state. Hyperinsulinemia and insulin action were initially proposed as the common preceding factors of hypertension, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, hypertriglyceridemia, abdominal obesity, and altered glucose tolerance, linki...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0010
更新日期:2003-06-01 00:00:00
abstract::Skeletal homeostasis is determined by systemic hormones and local factors. Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) are unique because they induce the differentiation of mesenchymal cells toward cells of the osteoblastic lineage and also enhance the differentiated function of the osteoblast. However, the activity of BMPs nee...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0023
更新日期:2003-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::Investigations of biological programs that are controlled by gene transcription have mainly studied the regulation of transcription factors. However, there are examples in which the primary focus of biological regulation is at the level of a transcriptional coactivator. We have reviewed here the molecular mechanisms a...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0012
更新日期:2003-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::Members of the TGF-beta superfamily, which includes TGF-betas, growth differentiation factors, bone morphogenetic proteins, activins, inhibins, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, are synthesized as prepropeptide precursors and then processed and secreted as homodimers or heterodimers. Most ligands of the...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0003
更新日期:2002-12-01 00:00:00
abstract::Bile acids derived from cholesterol and oxysterols derived from cholesterol and bile acid synthesis pathways are signaling molecules that regulate cholesterol homeostasis in mammals. Many nuclear receptors play pivotal roles in the regulation of bile acid and cholesterol metabolism. Bile acids activate the farnesoid X...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2000-0035
更新日期:2002-08-01 00:00:00
abstract:OBJECTIVE:To summarize controlled trials examining the effect of calcium on bone density and fractures in postmenopausal women. DATA SOURCE:We searched MEDLINE and EMBASE up to 1998 and the Cochrane Controlled Register up to 2000, and we examined citations of relevant articles and proceedings of international meetings...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,meta分析,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2001-7002
更新日期:2002-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Vitamin D deficiency is common in the elderly, especially in the housebound and in geriatric patients. The establishment of strict diagnostic criteria is hampered by differences in assay methods for 25-hydroxyvitamin D. The synthesis of vitamin D3 in the skin under influence of UV light decreases with aging due to ins...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv.22.4.0437
更新日期:2001-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::The secretion of glucocorticoids (GCs) is a classic endocrine response to stress. Despite that, it remains controversial as to what purpose GCs serve at such times. One view, stretching back to the time of Hans Selye, posits that GCs help mediate the ongoing or pending stress response, either via basal levels of GCs p...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv.21.1.0389
更新日期:2000-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::Insulin degradation is a regulated process that plays a role in controlling insulin action by removing and inactivating the hormone. Abnormalities in insulin clearance and degradation are present in various pathological conditions including type 2 diabetes and obesity and may be important in producing clinical problem...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv.19.5.0349
更新日期:1998-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::It is well known that GH is important in the regulation of longitudinal bone growth. Its role in the regulation of bone metabolism in man has not been understood until recently. Several in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that GH is important in the regulation of both bone formation and bone resorption. In ...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv.19.1.0324
更新日期:1998-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::Independently, endocrinology, radiology, and nuclear medicine can not optimally differentiate the etiology of the incidental adrenal mass. Rather, the insight necessary for this task must be contributed by all three disciplines. Incidentally discovered adrenal masses are being detected at an increasing rate. This tren...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-16-4-460
更新日期:1995-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::The most active corticosteroids are 11 beta-hydroxylated. Humans have two isozymes with 11 beta-hydroxylase activity that are respectively required for cortisol and aldosterone synthesis. CYP11B1 (11 beta-hydroxylase) is expressed at high levels and is regulated by ACTH, whereas CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) is norma...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-15-4-421
更新日期:1994-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Hormones and cytokines regulate many cellular functions by activating the ubiquitous cAMP-dependent protein kinase (A kinase) system. Newly synthesized cAMP molecules bind to regulatory (R) subunits in A kinase holoenzymes, causing them to release their catalytic (C) subunits. These free C subunits then phosphorylate ...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-14-5-632
更新日期:1993-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::The integrity of the Tg structure as a protein is essential for adequate synthesis of thyroid hormone. Also a large supply of iodine and of thyroid hormone is stored into the Tg molecule and available for secretion on demand. Mutations in Tg gene or hyposialylated Tg due to a defective sialyltransferase activity would...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-14-2-165
更新日期:1993-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::The etiology of the AITDs remains unclear but it is now generally believed that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development. Some recent findings have begun to directly and indirectly implicate the possibility of infectious agents in the pathogenesis of AITD, and these data serve as the basi...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-14-1-107
更新日期:1993-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::PRL and GH are hormones with a wide spectrum of actions. Specific receptors are widely distributed in a number of classical target organs, but other tissues that are not known targets also contain measurable binding sites or receptor mRNA. The most likely explanation is that PRL and GH cause effects that have not yet ...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-12-3-235
更新日期:1991-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Cells from the chorionic girdle of the equine trophoblast invade the maternal endometrium at day 36 of gestation and become established as secretory elements known as the endometrial cups. These structures, which persist for 40-60 days, produce a gonadotropin which can be found in circulation until about day 130 of ge...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-12-1-27
更新日期:1991-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::This paper has reviewed current knowledge of clinical, biochemical, and morphological manifestations of extracranial GRH-producing tumors. Excessive GRH release stimulates pituitary somatotrophs causing elevation of blood GH levels and acromegaly. In some patients with GRH-containing tumor, blood GH concentrations are...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-9-3-357
更新日期:1988-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Rats bearing transplantable Walker 256 carcinoma provide an opportunity to assess thyroid function and activity during an interval of time when the tumor has not affected growth rate. Rats with tumor have decreased serum T4 and T3 concentration and decreased serum FT4 and FT3 as well. These changes are due to a decrea...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-6-1-87
更新日期:1985-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::We applied decision analysis to the controversy over the management of the solitary nonfunctioning thyroid nodule. Three standard management plans were considered: immediate subtotal thyroidectomy; a six month trial of thyroid suppression with L-thyroxine, with non-suppressible lesions being removed surgically; and as...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-5-2-185
更新日期:1984-04-01 00:00:00